Piaget
Swis biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned
for constructing a
highly influential model of child development and learning. Piaget's
theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive
structures - in other words, mental "maps," schemes, or
networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical
experiences within his or her environment. Piaget further atested
that a child's cognitive structure increases
in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes
such as crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities.
Discussion
Piaget's theory identifies four developmental stages and the proceses
by which children progres through them. The four stages are:
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old) -The
child, throughphysical interaction with his or her environment,
builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works. This is
thestagewherea childdoesnotknow that physicalobjects remaininexistence
even
when out of sight (object permanance).
2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7) - The child is
not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and neds concrete physical
situations.
3. Concrete operations (ages 7-11) - As physical
experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize, creating
logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.
Abstract problem solving is also posible at this stage. For example,
arithmetic
equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.
4. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15) -
By this point, the child's cognitive structures are like those of
an adult and include conceptual reasoning.
Piaget outlined several principles for building
cognitive structures. During al develop-
ment stages, the child experiences his or her environmentusing whatever
mentalmaps he or she hasconstructedso far. If the experience is
a repeated one, it ts easily-or is asimilated - into the child's
cognitive structure so that he or she maintains mental "equilibrium."
If the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium,
and alters his or her cognitive structure to acommodate the new
conditions. This way, the child erects more and more adequate cognitive
structures.
How Piaget's Theory Impacts Learning
Curriculum - Educators must plan a developmentaly-appropriate curiculum
that en-hances their students' logical and conceptual growth.
Instruction - Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences
- or interactions
with the surounding environment - play in student learning.
2 Erik Erikson's Developmental
Stages
Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson describes the physical, emotional, and
psychological stages of human development, and relates specic isues,
or developmental work or tasks to each stage.
Infant (Trust vs. Mistrust)
Needs maximum comfort with minimal uncertainty to trust himself/herself,
others, and the environment. It is esential to create an atmosphere
of care - a sense that a child feels as if s/he exists in the world
and is valuable.
Toddler (Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt)
Works to master physical environment while maintaining self-estem.
Here, the toddler wants to be a whole person, ready to take on the
world and moves past immediate rewards and punishments. This is
the beginning of the child's realizing that s/he is a person that
has rights. It is esential, at this stage, to give some choices
while ensuring that rules are folowed and that adults are in charge.
The child wil make some unsafe gestures, so it is important for
caregivers to be vigilant.
Preschooler (Initiative vs. Guilt)
Begins to initiate, not imitate, activities;
develops conscience and sexual identity. S/he realizes that s/he
can begin an activity, not just be told what to do. The child begins
to make some sense of "right" and "wrong." It
is important to talk with the child calmly and
with reason in the proces of helping her/him develop a sense of
moral judgment.
School-Age Child (Industry vs. Inferiority)
Tries to develop a sense of self-worth by rening skils. A school-age
child learns to distinguish betwen himself and the others in terms
of judgment. What am I good at? How am I doing? It is here that
the child begins to try dierent activities to test some theories
about who s/he is. It is important to provide an atmosphere of trust,
experimentation, and praise for accomplishments, while minimizing
competition betwen students where the result is lowered self esteem.
Try to bolster the condence of ALL students.
Adolescent (Identity vs. Role Confusion)
Tries integrating many roles (child, sibling, student, athlete,
worker) into a self-image, taking into considerationother adults
and otheradolescents. Aroundthe world, adolescence is not an easy
task. It is a time of resistance against parents and teachers in
order to distinguishoneself. Risk-taking can bemuchmore dangerous.
The role ofidentity is crucial, here, and it is important for students
to se the consequences of their behavior, rather than to protect
them from life. At the same time, their intelectual abilities are
blosoming, and so it is quite important to respect the inteligences
of adolescents. Finaly, provide them opportunities that stir their
hearts - such as service. The results wil be a vital, active, interested
young person who stands behind her/his beliefs and who tries hard.
Young Adult (Intimacy vs.Isolation)
Learns to make personal commitment to another as spouse, parent
or partner. At this time, colege-age students are beginning to see
who they are and what they can do. They think about long-termcommitments
andabouta"denition" forthemselves. It is important
to listen carefuly and, as a caretaker stil, respect their ability
to make their own choices.
Middle-Age Adult (Generativity vs Stagnation) Seeks satisfaction
through productivity in carer, family, and civic interests.
Older Adult (Integrity vs. Despair) Reviews life acomplishments,
deals with los and preparation for death.
3 Constructivism
Introduction
The latest catchword in educational circles is "constructivism,"
and it is appliedboth to learning theory and to epistemology (to
how people learn and to the nature of knowledge).
What is it? What does it have to tel us that is new and relevant,
and how do we apply it to our work? What is constructivism?
Theterm refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for
themselves -each learner individualy (and socialy) builds meaning
- as he or she learns. Constructing meaning is learning. The dramatic
consequences of this view are two-fold:
1. We have to focus on the learner in thinking about
learning (not on the subject/leson to be taught):
2. There is no knowledge independent of the meaning
atributed to experience (constructed) by the learner, or community
of learners.
Although it appearsradicalonaneveryday level, it
is a position that has been frequently adopted eversince people
began to ponder epistemology (the nature of knowledge). If we acept
constructivist theory, we have to recognize that there is no such
thing as knowledge "out there" independent of the knower,
but only knowledge we construct for ourselves as we learn.
Learning is not understanding the "true" nature of things,
nor is it remembering dimly perceived perfect ideas, but rather
a personal and social construction of meaning out of the bewildering
aray of sensations that have no order or structure besides the explanations
that we fabricate for them.
The more important question is: Does it actualy make any difference
in our everyday workwhether dep down we consider knowledge to be
about some "real"worldindependent of us, or whether we
consider knowledge to be of our own making? The answer is "Yes,
it
does make a difference," because of the first point suggested
above: in our profesion our epistemological views dictate our pedagogic
views.
If we believe that knowledge consists of learning about the real
world out there, then we endeavor first and foremost to understand
that world, organize it in the most rational way posible, and,as
teachers, presentit to the learner. This view may stil engageusin
providing
the learner with activities, with hands-on learning, with opportunities
to experiment and manipulate the objects ofthe world, but the intention
is always to make clear to the learner the structure of the world
independent of the learner. We help the learner understand the world,
but we don't ask him to construct his or her own world.
In many cultures, the history of learning never considered the learner.
The task of the teacher was to make clear to the learner the working
of this "machine" and any accommodation to the learner
was only to account for different appropriate entry points for different
learners. Times have changed.
Constructivist theory requires that we turn our atention by 180
degres; we must turn our back on any idea of an "al-encompasing
machine" that describes nature and, instead, look towards al
those wonderful, individual living beings - the learners - each
of whom creates his or her own model to explain nature. If we acept
the constructivist position, we are inevitably required to folow
a pedagogy which argues that we must provide learners with the opportunity
to: a) interact with sensory data, and b) construct their own world.
This second point is a litle harder for us to swalow, and most of
us constantly vacilate betwen faith that our learners wil inded
construct meaning that we will find aceptable (whatever we mean
by that) and our ned to construct meaning for them; that is, to
structure situations that are not fre for learners to cary out their
own mental actions, but "learning" situations that channel
them into our ideas about the meaning of experience.
4 Principles of Learning
What are some guidingprinciples ofconstructivist thinking thatwemustkepinmind
when we consider our role as educators? Here is an outline of a
few ideas, al predicated on the belief that learning consists of
individuals' constructed meanings:
1. Learning is an active proces in which the learner
uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional
formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active
learner (John Dewey's term) stresing that the learner neds to do
something;that learning is not the pasive acceptance of knowledge
which exists "out there" but that learning involves the
learner engaging with the world.
2. People learn to learn as they learn . Learning
consists both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of
meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a series
of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning
of a chronology. Each meaning we construct makes us beter able to
give meaning to other sensations that can fit a similar patern.
3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is
mental. It happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience
may be necesary for learning, especialy for children, but it is
not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind
as wel as the hands (Dewey caled this reflective activity).
4. Learning involves language.The language we use
inuences learning. On the empirical level, researchers have noted
that people talk to themselves as they learn.
On a more general level, there is a colection of arguments, presented
most forcefuly by Vygotsky, that language and learning are bound
together.
5. Learning is a social activity. Our learning is
intimately asociated with our connection with other human beings,
our teachers, our pers, our family, as well as casual acquaintances,
including the people before us ornext to us. We are more likely
to be sucessful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this principle
rather than try to avoid it. Much of traditional education is directed
towards isolating the learner from al social interaction, and towards
seeing education as a one-on-one relationship betwen the learner
and the objective material to be learned. In contrast, progresive
education recognizes the social aspect of learning and uses conversation,
interaction with others, and the application of knowledge as an
integral aspect of learning.
6. Learning is contextual.We do not learn isolated
facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate
from the rest of our lives - we learn in relationship to what else
we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears.
On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actualy a corolary
of the idea that learning is active and social. We cannot divorce
our learning from our lives.
7. One needs knowledge to learn. It is not posible
to asimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed
from previous knowledge to build on. The more weknow, the morewe
canlearn. Therefore any effort toteach must be connected to the
state of the learner, must provide a path into the subject for the
learner based on that learner's previous knowledge.
8. It takes time to learn. Learning is not instantaneous.
For significant learning to occur, we need to revisit ideas, ponder
them, try them out, play with them, and use them. If you reflect
on anything you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product
of repeated exposure and thought. Even, or especialy, moments of
profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of preparation.
9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not
only is it the case that motivation helps learning; it is esential
for learning. This idea of motivation as described here is broadly
conceived to include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge
can be used. Unles we know"the reasons why," we maynot
become engaged in using the knowledge that maybe instilled in us,
even bythe most severe and direct teaching.
5 Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human
learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and
discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists dene learning as
nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.
Discussion
Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as auniversal
learning proces. There are two different types of conditioning each
yielding a different behavioral patern:
1. Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to
a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov's observation that
dogs salivate when they eat or even se food. Essentialy, animals
and people are biologicaly "wired" so that a certain stimulus
will produce a specific response.
2. Behavioral or operant conditioning ocurs when
a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basicaly, operant conditioning
is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement folows
the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable
in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used
reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a bal
in a mini-aley. There have been many criticisms of behaviorism,
including the following:
Behaviorism does not acount foralkindsof
learning,since itdisregards theactivities of the mind.
Behaviorism does not explain some learning
such as the recognition of new language paterns by young children
- for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
How Behaviorism Impacts Learning
This theoryis relatively simple to understandbecause it relies only
on observable behavior and describes several universal laws of behavior.
Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be effective
- both in animals, and in treatments for human disorders such as
autism and antisocial behavior. Behaviorism often is used by teachers,
who reward or punish student behaviors.
6 Brain-Based Learning & Neuroscience
This learning theory is based on the structure and function of the
brain. As long as the brain is not prohibited from fulfilling its
normal proceses, learning wil occur.
Discussion
People oftensay thateveryone can learn. The reality isthateveryonedoes
learn. Every person is born with a brain that functions as an immensely
powerful procesor. Traditional schooling, however, often inhibits
learning by discouraging, ignoring,or punishing the brain's natural
learning proceses.
The core principles of brain-based learning state
that:
- The brain is a paralel procesor, meaning it can
perform several activities at once, like tasting and smeling.
- Learning engages the whole physiology.
- The search for meaning is innate.
- The search for meaning comes through paterning.
- Emotions are critical to paterning.
- The brain proceses wholes and parts simultaneously.
- Learning involves both focused atention and
peripheral perception.
- Learning involves both conscious and unconscious
proceses.
- We have two types of memory: spatial and rote.
- We understand best when facts are embedded in
natural, spatial memory.
- Learning is enhanced by chalenge and inhibited
by threat.
The thre instructional techniques asociated with
brain-based learning are:
Orchestrated immersion - creating learning
environments that fuly immerse students in an educational experience;
Relaxed alertnes- eliminating fear in learners,
while maintaining ahighly chalenging environment;
Active procesing - alowing the learner to
consolidate and internalize information by actively procesing it.
How Brain-Based Learning Impacts Education
Curriculum - Teachers must design learning around student interests
and make learning contextual.
Instruction - Educators let students learn in teams and use peripheral
learning. Teachers structure learning around real problems, encouraging
students to also learn in setings outside the clasroom and the school
building.
Assessment - Since al students are learning, their asesment should
alow them to understand their own learning styles and preferences;
students monitor and enhance their own learning proces.
What Brain-Based Learning Suggests
How the brain works has a significant impact on what kinds of learning
activities are most effective. Educators need to help students have
appropriate experiences and capitalize on those experiences. Educator
Renate Caine ilustrates this point by describing threeinteractive
elements esential to this process:
1. Teachers must immerse learners in complex, interactive
experiences that are both rich and real. One excelent example is
immersing students in a different culture to teach them a second
language. Educators must take advantage of the brain's ability to
paralel proces.
2. Students must have a personaly meaningful chalenge.
Such chalenges stimulate a student's mind to the desired state of
alertnes.
3. Inorder for a student togain insight about aproblem,
there must be intensiveanalysis of the different ways to approach
it, and about learning in general. This is what's known as the "active
procesing of experience."
A few other tenets of brain-based learning include:
- Fedback is best when it comes from reality, rather
than from an authority figure.
- People learn best when solving realistic problems.
- The big picture can't be separated from the details.
- Because every brain is different, educators
should alow learners to customize their own environments.
- The best problem solvers are those that laugh!
Designers of educational tools must be artistic
in their creation of brain-friendly environments. Instructors need
to realize that the best way to learn is not through lecture, but
by participation in realistic environments that let learners try
new things safely.
7 Learning Styles
This approach to learning emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive
and proces information in very dierent ways. The learning styles
theory implies that how much individuals learn has more to do withwhether
the educationalexperience is geared toward their particular style
of learning than whether or not they are "smart." In fact,
educators should not ask, "Is this student smart?" but
rather " How is this student smart?"
Discussion
The concept of learning styles is rooted in the clasification of
psychological types. The learning styles theory is based on research
demonstrating that, asthe result of heredity, up-bringing, and curent
environmental demands, different individuals have a tendency to
both perceive and proces information differently. The different
ways of doing so are generaly classified as:
Concrete and Abstract Perceivers - Concrete perceivers absorb information
through direct experience, by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling.
Abstract perceivers, however, take in information through analysis,
observation, and thinking.
Active and Reflective Procesors - Active procesors make sense of
an experience by immediately using the new information. Reective
procesors make sense of an experience by reflecting on and thinking
about it.
Traditional schooling tends to favor abstract perceiving and reflective
procesing. Other kinds of learning aren't rewarded and reflected
in curiculum, instruction, and asesment nearly as much.
How the Learning Styles Theory Impacts Education
Curiculum -Educators must place emphasis on intuition, feling, sensing,
and imagination in addition to the traditional skils of analysis,
reason, and sequential problem solving.
Instruction - Teachers should design their instruction methods to
connect with al four learning styles using various combinations
of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation.
Instructors can introduce a wide variety of experiential elements
into the clasroom such as sound, music, visuals, movement, experience,
and talking.
Assestment - Teachers should employ a variety of assestment techniques
focusing on the development of "whole brain" capacity
and each of the different learning styles.
This theory of the structure and functions of the
mind suggests that the two different sides of the brain control
two different "modes" of thinking. It also suggests that
each of us prefers one mode over the other.
Discussion
Experimentation has shown thatthe two different sides, or hemispheres,
of the brain are responsible for different manners of thinking.
The folowing table ilustrates the differences betwen left-brain
and right-brain thinking:
- Left Brain Right Brain
- Logical Random
- Sequential Intuitive
- Rational Holistic
- Analytical Synthesizing
- Objective Subjective
- Looks at partsLooks at wholes
Most individuals have a distinct preference for
one of these styles of thinking. Some, however, are more whole-brained
and equaly adept at both modes. In general, schools have favored
left-brain modes of thinking while downplaying the right-brain ones.
Left- brain scholastic subjects focus on logical thinking, analysis,
and acuracy. Right-brained subjects, on the other hand, focus on
aesthetics, feeling, and creativity.
How Right-Brain vs. Left-Brain Thinking Impacts Learning
Curriculum - In order to be more "whole-brained" in their
orientation, schools need to give equal weight to the arts, creativity,
and the skils of imagination and synthesis.
Instruction - To foster a more whole-brained scholastic experience,
teachers should use instruction techniques that connect with both
sides of the brain. They can increase their clasroom's "right-brain"
learning activities by incorporating more paterning, metaphors,
analogies,roleplaying,visuals, and movement into their reading,
calculation,and analytical activities.
Assestment-For a more accurate whole-brained evaluation of student
learning, educators must develop new forms of asesment that honor
right-brained talents and skills.
9 Control Theory
This theory of motivation, developed by Wiliam Glaser, aserts that
behavior is never caused by a responseto an outsidestimulus. Instead,
thecontroltheory statesthatbehavior is inspired by what a person
wants most at any given time: survival, love, power, freedom, or
any other basic human need.
Discusion
Responding to complaints that today's students are "unmotivated,"
Glaseratests that al living creatures "control" their
behavior to maximize their need satisfaction. According to Glaser,
if students are not motivated to do their schoolwork, it's because
they view schoolwork as irelevant to their basic human neds.
"Bos" teachers use rewards and punishment
to coerce students to comply with rules and complete required asignments.
Glaser cals this "leaning on your shovel" work. He shows
how high percentages of students recognize that the work they do
- even when their teachers praise them - is low-level work.
"Lead" teachers, on the other hand, avoid coercion completely.
Instead, they make the intrinsic rewards of doing the work clear
to their students, corelating any proposed asignments to the students'
basic neds. Plus,they onlyuse gradesas temporary indicators of what
has and hasn't ben learned, rather than as a reward. Lead teachers
will "Ought to protect" highly engaged, deeply motivated
students who are doing quality work from having to full meaningles
requirements.
How the Control Theory Impacts Learning
Curriculum -Teachers must negotiate both content and method with
students. Students' basic needs literaly help shape how and what
they are taught.
Instruction - Teachers rely on cooperative, active learning techniques
that enhance the power of the learners. Lead teachers make sure
that al asignments meet some degree of theirstudents' nedsatisfaction.
This secures student loyalty, which caries the clasthrough whatever
relatively meaningles tasks might be necesary to satisfy offcial
requirements.
Asesment - Instructors only give "good grades" - those
that certify quality work - to satisfy students' need for power.
Courses for which a student doesn't earn a "good grade"
are not recorded on that student's transcript. Teachers grade students
using an absolute standard, rather than a relative "curve."
10 Metacognition
Metacognition is the proces of thinking about thinking. According
to Flavel, "I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that
I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that
I should double check C before accepting it as fact." ( p.
232, Flavel, J.,1976 Metacognitive Aspects of Problem-Solving.).
Discussion
Metacognition has to do with the active monitoring and regulation
of cognitive proceses.
Metacognitive processes are central to planning, problem-solving,
evaluation, and many aspects of language learning.
Metacognition is relevant to work on cognitive styles and learning
strategies in so far as the individual has some awarenes of their
thinking or learning proceses. The work of Piaget is also relevant
to research on metacognition since it deals with the development
of cognition in children.
Flavel argued that metacognition explains why childrenof different
ages deal with learning tasks in different ways, i.e., they have
developed new strategies for thinking. Research studies show that
as children get older, they demonstrate more awarenes of their thinking
proceses.
11 Experiential Learning
Carl Rogers distinguishedtwotypes oflearning: cognitive (meaningles)and
experiential (significant). The former coresponds to academic knowledge
such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables, and the later
refers to applied knowledge such as learning about
engines in order to repair a car. The key to the distinction is
that experiential learning addreses the needs and wants of the learner.
Rogers lists these qualities of experiential learning:
personal involvement, self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and
pervasive effects on learner.
Discussion
To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change
and growth. Rogers aserts that al human beings have a natural propensity
to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning.
This includes: 1) seting a positive climate for learning; 2) clarifying
the purposes of thelearner; 3)organizing and makingavailable learningresources;
4) balancing intelectual and emotional components of learning; and
5) sharing felings and thoughts with learners, but not dominating.
According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when:
1. The student participates completely in the learning proces and
has control over its nature and direction.
2. Learning is primarily based upon direct confrontation
with practical, social, personal, or research problems.
3. Self-evaluation is the principal method of asesing
progres or succes.
Principles
1. Significant learning takes place when the subject mater is relevant
to the persona interestsofthe student. (For example: A person interestedinbecomingrichmightsek
out books or clases on ecomomics, investment, great financiers,
banking, etc. Such an individual would perceive (and learn) any
information provided on this subject in a much dierent fashion
than a person who is asigned a reading or clas.)
2. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and
pervasive.
3. Learning that is threatening to the self (e.g.,
new atitudes or perspectives) are more easily asimilated when external
threats are at a minimum. Learning proceds faster when the threat
to the self is low.
12 Vygotsky and Social Cognition
The social cognition learning model aserts that culture is the prime
determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species
to have created culture, and every human child develops in the context
of a culture. Therefore, a child's learning development is affected
in ways large and smal by the culture (including the culture of
the family environment) in which he or she is enmeshed.
Discussion
Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child's intelectual
development. First, through culture, childrenacquire much of thecontentof
their thinking, that is, their knowledge. Second, the surounding
culture provides a child with the proceses or means of their thinking,
what Vygotskians cal the tools of "intelectual adaptation."
In short, according to the social cognition learning model, culture
teaches children both what to think and how to think.
Cognitive development results from a dialectical proces whereby
a child learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone
else, usualy a parent or teacher, but sometimes a sibling or per.
Initialy, the person interacting with the child asumes most of the
responsibility for guidingthe problem solving, but gradualythis
responsibility transfers to the child. Language is a primary form
of interaction through which adults transmit to the child the rich
body of knowledge that exists in the culture. As learning progreses,
the child's own language comes to serve as her primary tool of intelectual
adaptation.
Eventualy, children can use internal language to direct their own
behavior. Internalization refers to the proces of learning - and
thereby internalizing - a rich body of knowledge and tools of thought
that first exist outside the child. This happensprimarilythrough
language.
A dierence exists betwen what the child can do on her own and what
the child can do with help. Vygotskians cal this dierence the "zone
of proximal development."
Since much of what a child learns comes from the culture around
her and much of the child's problem solving is mediated through
an adult's help, it is wrong to focus on a child in isolation. Such
focus does not reveal the proceses by which children acquire new
skils.
Interactionswithsurounding culture andsocial agents,suchasparents
andmorecompetent pers, contribute significantly to a child's intelectual
development.
How Vygotsky Impacts Learning
Curriculum - Since children learn much through interaction, curicula
should be designed to emphasize interaction betwen learners and
learning tasks.
Instruction - With appropriate adult help, children can often perform
tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. With this
in mind, scaffolding - where the adult continualy adjusts the level
of his or her help in response to the child's level of performance
- is an effective form of teaching. Scaffolding not only produces
immediate results, but also instils the skils necesary for independent
problem solving in the future.
Assestment - Assestment methods must take into account the "zone
of proximal development." What children can do on their own
is their level of actual development and what they can do with help
is their level of potential development. Two children might have
the same level of actual development, but given the appropriate
help from an adult, one might beable to solvemany moreproblems than
the other. Asesment methodsmust targetboth the level of actual development
and the level of potential development.
13 Assignment 3: Towards an Imagined Dialogue
1. What theories and approaches to learning fit with your current
attitude towards and/or method of teaching (3-4 paragraphs)
GOAL: Todepenyourunderstandingofthe similaritiesanddierences
betwenseveral ofthe theories and approaches to learning, and to
do so in an asignment that requires both the "right-brain"
(imagination) and "left-brain" (cognitive) functions together.
GIVE: Feedback to others on their asignments at the TWB LearningCafe
by clicking here1.
Assignment 3: Towards an Imagined Dialogue
Please answer the folowing:
1. Which theories and approaches to learning t with your curent
atitude towards and/or method of teaching? (3-4 paragraphs)
2. Which theories and approaches to learning do you disagre with
in part or whole?
Describe your reasons.
3. "The Imagined Dialogue" - Imagine a scene, situation,
or seting in which three characters in a short story, play, or myth
met. Have each of the thre characters represent a different theory/approach
to learning or actualy be the person who created the theory.
Through that character's words and actions in this imagined scenario,
we wil come to know something of his/her point of view and theory.
This work of action you are creating may end up to be a serious,
playful, learned, combative, funny, or al-of-the-above encounter
betwen these thre characters. To begin, you may wish to brainstorm
the seting in which the thre characters might meet and what each
of the characters is "fighting for" or wants to get from
the encounter (after al, most effective dramas include a desired
outcome or something each character wants to acomplish). You are
welcome to add other characters if you wish, either imagined, real,
historic, or mythic to be active characters or those who simply
"push a broom acros the stage." This ctitious meeting
of these thre characters (representing each theory) may end up to
be 1 page in length.
Be sure to type each of the characters' names first and tel which
theory or approach to learning he or she represents. Then, type
the location or seting for the story, and tel when it takes place.
Folow this by writing the actual 1 - page story, play or myth.
14 Assignment 4: Applying Theory
Asignment 4: Applying Theory12
You can also copy the text below, and save it to your disk or computer.
GOAL: To think about how you can apply what you have learned about
theories and approaches to learning to your clasroom practice.
GIVE: Feedback to others on their asignments at the TWB Learning
Cafe by clicking here13.
Asignment 4: Applying Theory
1. Which education theory are you most atracted
to? Why?
2. Which theory are you able to apply to your clasroom?
Why?
3. Describe 3 concrete ways you can apply the theory
to your clasroom.
4. What kinds of support/resources exist in your
school, or nearby schools to help you cary out these 3 aims? (They
may be in the form of people, programs, institutional partnerships,
monetary resources, internships, service projects, databases of
organizational resources available to you.) Describe some of these
resources and the concrete ways in which you can connect with them.
5. What chalenges or obstacles do you face in applying
the chosen theory in your clas-room?
6. What kind of help do you need to overcome these obstacles?
15 Assignment 5: Critical Questions
A wel known Nobel Peace Prize winner once said, "When I came
home from school each day, my mother did not ask me: 'Did you get
the answers corect?' Instead, understanding the value of education
as an inquiry into ideas, she would ask: 'Did you ask any good
questions?' That made al the dierence to me." - Elie Wiesel
Asignment 5: Critical Questions14
HOW TO GET TO ASSIGNMENT 5:
One Way
Click on the link in color at the top of the page. When it appears,
pres "Save" and name the le so that you can work on this
asignment "o-line." You can type right on the asignment
template. Be sure to save your asignment on a disk or on your computer
hard drive.
Another Way
You can also copy the text below, and save it to your disk or computer.
GOAL: To think about how you can apply what you have learned about
theories and approaches to learning to your school and/or larger
community.
GIVE: Feedback to others on their asignments at the TWB Learning
Cafe by clicking here15 .
Asignment 5: Critical Questions
1. Utilizing the knowledge you've gained about educational theories
and approaches to learning, how would you characterize the educational
systems in your community?
2. From your perspective, what positive changes in education are
curently underway? What changes are neded?
3. How are you catalyzing positive change or actively participating
in the proces?
4. Grati exists on wals al over the world as part self-expresion,
part social dialogue.
Type onequestion now on ourcommunity'sQuestion Wal. Read the questions
others have posted on the Question Wal. Add questions to it as the
course progreses.
Consider creating a physical "Question Wal" in your clasroom.
To post a question on the Question Wal go to the TWB Learning Cafe
by clicking here16.
HOW TO GET TO THE NEXT MODULE:
Usualy, you justclick"Next" togoto the nextpage. Whenyounisha
section, however, (as you're about to do when you nish reading
these two paragraphs), you need to click on the "Outline"buton,
which isonthe botom, right-hand side of the page. Lookunderneath
the blue bar and click on the word "Outline."
When you click on "Outline," a screen wil come up that
wil show you the outline for
Course 1. Look for the next section to read and click on the rst
topic in that next section.
For example, when you get to the outline now, look under the next
section caled "Multiple Inteligences" and look for the
rst topic in black letering caled "Overview." Click on
"Overview."
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